Python Documentation contents
- What’s New in Python
- What’s New In Python 3.6
- What’s New In Python 3.5
- Summary – Release highlights
- New Features
- PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
- PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
- PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
- PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
- PEP 484 - Type Hints
- PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator
- PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
- PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
- PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
- PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
- PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
- PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
- Other Language Changes
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- argparse
- asyncio
- bz2
- cgi
- cmath
- code
- collections
- collections.abc
- compileall
- concurrent.futures
- configparser
- contextlib
- csv
- curses
- dbm
- difflib
- distutils
- doctest
- enum
- faulthandler
- functools
- glob
- gzip
- heapq
- http
- http.client
- idlelib and IDLE
- imaplib
- imghdr
- importlib
- inspect
- io
- ipaddress
- json
- linecache
- locale
- logging
- lzma
- math
- multiprocessing
- operator
- os
- pathlib
- pickle
- poplib
- re
- readline
- selectors
- shutil
- signal
- smtpd
- smtplib
- sndhdr
- socket
- ssl
- sqlite3
- subprocess
- sys
- sysconfig
- tarfile
- threading
- time
- timeit
- tkinter
- traceback
- types
- unicodedata
- unittest
- unittest.mock
- urllib
- wsgiref
- xmlrpc
- xml.sax
- zipfile
- Other module-level changes
- Optimizations
- Build and C API Changes
- Deprecated
- Removed
- Porting to Python 3.5
- What’s New In Python 3.4
- Summary – Release Highlights
- New Features
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- abc
- aifc
- argparse
- audioop
- base64
- collections
- colorsys
- contextlib
- dbm
- dis
- doctest
- filecmp
- functools
- gc
- glob
- hashlib
- hmac
- html
- http
- idlelib and IDLE
- importlib
- inspect
- ipaddress
- logging
- marshal
- mmap
- multiprocessing
- operator
- os
- pdb
- pickle
- plistlib
- poplib
- pprint
- pty
- pydoc
- re
- resource
- select
- shelve
- shutil
- smtpd
- smtplib
- socket
- sqlite3
- ssl
- stat
- struct
- subprocess
- sunau
- sys
- tarfile
- textwrap
- threading
- traceback
- types
- urllib
- unittest
- venv
- wave
- weakref
- xml.etree
- zipfile
- CPython Implementation Changes
- Deprecated
- Removed
- Porting to Python 3.4
- Changed in 3.4.3
- What’s New In Python 3.3
- Summary – Release highlights
- PEP 405: Virtual Environments
- PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
- PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
- PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
- PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
- PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
- PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
- PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
- PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
- PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
- PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
- PEP 362: Function Signature Object
- PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
- Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
- Other Language Changes
- A Finer-Grained Import Lock
- Builtin functions and types
- New Modules
- Improved Modules
- abc
- array
- base64
- binascii
- bz2
- codecs
- collections
- contextlib
- crypt
- curses
- datetime
- decimal
- ftplib
- functools
- gc
- hmac
- http
- html
- imaplib
- inspect
- io
- itertools
- logging
- math
- mmap
- multiprocessing
- nntplib
- os
- pdb
- pickle
- pydoc
- re
- sched
- select
- shlex
- shutil
- signal
- smtpd
- smtplib
- socket
- socketserver
- sqlite3
- ssl
- stat
- struct
- subprocess
- sys
- tarfile
- tempfile
- textwrap
- threading
- time
- types
- unittest
- urllib
- webbrowser
- xml.etree.ElementTree
- zlib
- Optimizations
- Build and C API Changes
- Deprecated
- Porting to Python 3.3
- What’s New In Python 3.2
- PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
- PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
- PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
- PEP 3148: The
concurrent.futures
module - PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
- PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
- PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- elementtree
- functools
- itertools
- collections
- threading
- datetime and time
- math
- abc
- io
- reprlib
- logging
- csv
- contextlib
- decimal and fractions
- ftp
- popen
- select
- gzip and zipfile
- tarfile
- hashlib
- ast
- os
- shutil
- sqlite3
- html
- socket
- ssl
- nntp
- certificates
- imaplib
- http.client
- unittest
- random
- poplib
- asyncore
- tempfile
- inspect
- pydoc
- dis
- dbm
- ctypes
- site
- sysconfig
- pdb
- configparser
- urllib.parse
- mailbox
- turtledemo
- Multi-threading
- Optimizations
- Unicode
- Codecs
- Documentation
- IDLE
- Code Repository
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 3.2
- What’s New In Python 3.1
- What’s New In Python 3.0
- What’s New in Python 2.7
- The Future for Python 2.x
- Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.6
- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user
site-packages
Directory - PEP 371: The
multiprocessing
Package - PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105:
print
As a Function - PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.5
- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.4
- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.3
- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.2
- Introduction
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.1
- Introduction
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: __future__ Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
- What’s New in Python 2.0
- Introduction
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- List Comprehensions
- Augmented Assignment
- String Methods
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
- Changelog
- The Python Tutorial
- Whetting Your Appetite
- Using the Python Interpreter
- An Informal Introduction to Python
- More Control Flow Tools
- Data Structures
- Modules
- Input and Output
- Errors and Exceptions
- Classes
- Brief Tour of the Standard Library
- Brief Tour of the Standard Library – Part II
- Virtual Environments and Packages
- What Now?
- Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
- Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
- Appendix
- Python Setup and Usage
- The Python Language Reference
- Introduction
- Lexical analysis
- Data model
- Objects, values and types
- The standard type hierarchy
- Special method names
- Coroutines
- Execution model
- The import system
- Expressions
- Arithmetic conversions
- Atoms
- Primaries
- Await expression
- The power operator
- Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
- Binary arithmetic operations
- Shifting operations
- Binary bitwise operations
- Comparisons
- Boolean operations
- Conditional expressions
- Lambdas
- Expression lists
- Evaluation order
- Operator precedence
- Simple statements
- Compound statements
- Top-level components
- Full Grammar specification
- The Python Standard Library
- Introduction
- Built-in Functions
- Built-in Constants
- Built-in Types
- Truth Value Testing
- Boolean Operations —
and
,or
,not
- Comparisons
- Numeric Types —
int
,float
,complex
- Iterator Types
- Sequence Types —
list
,tuple
,range
- Text Sequence Type —
str
- Binary Sequence Types —
bytes
,bytearray
,memoryview
- Set Types —
set
,frozenset
- Mapping Types —
dict
- Context Manager Types
- Other Built-in Types
- Special Attributes
- Built-in Exceptions
- Text Processing Services
string
— Common string operationsre
— Regular expression operationsdifflib
— Helpers for computing deltastextwrap
— Text wrapping and fillingunicodedata
— Unicode Databasestringprep
— Internet String Preparationreadline
— GNU readline interfacerlcompleter
— Completion function for GNU readline
- Binary Data Services
struct
— Interpret bytes as packed binary datacodecs
— Codec registry and base classes
- Data Types
datetime
— Basic date and time typescalendar
— General calendar-related functionscollections
— Container datatypescollections.abc
— Abstract Base Classes for Containersheapq
— Heap queue algorithmbisect
— Array bisection algorithmarray
— Efficient arrays of numeric valuesweakref
— Weak referencestypes
— Dynamic type creation and names for built-in typescopy
— Shallow and deep copy operationspprint
— Data pretty printerreprlib
— Alternaterepr()
implementationenum
— Support for enumerations- Module Contents
- Creating an Enum
- Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
- Duplicating enum members and values
- Ensuring unique enumeration values
- Iteration
- Comparisons
- Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
- Restricted subclassing of enumerations
- Pickling
- Functional API
- Derived Enumerations
- Interesting examples
- How are Enums different?
- Numeric and Mathematical Modules
- Functional Programming Modules
- File and Directory Access
pathlib
— Object-oriented filesystem pathsos.path
— Common pathname manipulationsfileinput
— Iterate over lines from multiple input streamsstat
— Interpretingstat()
resultsfilecmp
— File and Directory Comparisonstempfile
— Generate temporary files and directoriesglob
— Unix style pathname pattern expansionfnmatch
— Unix filename pattern matchinglinecache
— Random access to text linesshutil
— High-level file operationsmacpath
— Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
- Data Persistence
pickle
— Python object serializationcopyreg
— Registerpickle
support functionsshelve
— Python object persistencemarshal
— Internal Python object serializationdbm
— Interfaces to Unix “databases”sqlite3
— DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
- Data Compression and Archiving
- File Formats
- Cryptographic Services
- Generic Operating System Services
os
— Miscellaneous operating system interfacesio
— Core tools for working with streamstime
— Time access and conversionsargparse
— Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commandsgetopt
— C-style parser for command line optionslogging
— Logging facility for Pythonlogging.config
— Logging configurationlogging.handlers
— Logging handlersgetpass
— Portable password inputcurses
— Terminal handling for character-cell displayscurses.textpad
— Text input widget for curses programscurses.ascii
— Utilities for ASCII characterscurses.panel
— A panel stack extension for cursesplatform
— Access to underlying platform’s identifying dataerrno
— Standard errno system symbolsctypes
— A foreign function library for Python- ctypes tutorial
- Loading dynamic link libraries
- Accessing functions from loaded dlls
- Calling functions
- Fundamental data types
- Calling functions, continued
- Calling functions with your own custom data types
- Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
- Return types
- Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
- Structures and unions
- Structure/union alignment and byte order
- Bit fields in structures and unions
- Arrays
- Pointers
- Type conversions
- Incomplete Types
- Callback functions
- Accessing values exported from dlls
- Surprises
- Variable-sized data types
- ctypes reference
- ctypes tutorial
- Concurrent Execution
threading
— Thread-based parallelismmultiprocessing
— Process-based parallelism- The
concurrent
package concurrent.futures
— Launching parallel taskssubprocess
— Subprocess managementsched
— Event schedulerqueue
— A synchronized queue classdummy_threading
— Drop-in replacement for thethreading
module_thread
— Low-level threading API_dummy_thread
— Drop-in replacement for the_thread
module
- Interprocess Communication and Networking
socket
— Low-level networking interfacessl
— TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objectsselect
— Waiting for I/O completionselectors
– High-level I/O multiplexingasyncio
– Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks- Base Event Loop
- Event loops
- Tasks and coroutines
- Transports and protocols (callback based API)
- Streams (coroutine based API)
- Subprocess
- Synchronization primitives
- Queues
- Develop with asyncio
asyncore
— Asynchronous socket handlerasynchat
— Asynchronous socket command/response handlersignal
— Set handlers for asynchronous eventsmmap
— Memory-mapped file support
- Internet Data Handling
email
— An email and MIME handling packageemail.message
: Representing an email messageemail.parser
: Parsing email messagesemail.generator
: Generating MIME documentsemail.policy
: Policy Objectsemail.headerregistry
: Custom Header Objectsemail.contentmanager
: Managing MIME Contentemail.mime
: Creating email and MIME objects from scratchemail.header
: Internationalized headersemail.charset
: Representing character setsemail.encoders
: Encodersemail.errors
: Exception and Defect classesemail.utils
: Miscellaneous utilitiesemail.iterators
: Iteratorsemail
: Examples- Package History
- Differences from
mimelib
json
— JSON encoder and decodermailcap
— Mailcap file handlingmailbox
— Manipulate mailboxes in various formatsmimetypes
— Map filenames to MIME typesbase64
— Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodingsbinhex
— Encode and decode binhex4 filesbinascii
— Convert between binary and ASCIIquopri
— Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable datauu
— Encode and decode uuencode files
- Structured Markup Processing Tools
html
— HyperText Markup Language supporthtml.parser
— Simple HTML and XHTML parserhtml.entities
— Definitions of HTML general entities- XML Processing Modules
xml.etree.ElementTree
— The ElementTree XML APIxml.dom
— The Document Object Model APIxml.dom.minidom
— Minimal DOM implementationxml.dom.pulldom
— Support for building partial DOM treesxml.sax
— Support for SAX2 parsersxml.sax.handler
— Base classes for SAX handlersxml.sax.saxutils
— SAX Utilitiesxml.sax.xmlreader
— Interface for XML parsersxml.parsers.expat
— Fast XML parsing using Expat
- Internet Protocols and Support
webbrowser
— Convenient Web-browser controllercgi
— Common Gateway Interface supportcgitb
— Traceback manager for CGI scriptswsgiref
— WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementationurllib
— URL handling modulesurllib.request
— Extensible library for opening URLs- Request Objects
- OpenerDirector Objects
- BaseHandler Objects
- HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
- HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
- ProxyHandler Objects
- HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
- HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
- AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
- HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
- ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
- AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
- HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
- ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
- HTTPHandler Objects
- HTTPSHandler Objects
- FileHandler Objects
- DataHandler Objects
- FTPHandler Objects
- CacheFTPHandler Objects
- UnknownHandler Objects
- HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
- Examples
- Legacy interface
urllib.request
Restrictions
urllib.response
— Response classes used by urlliburllib.parse
— Parse URLs into componentsurllib.error
— Exception classes raised by urllib.requesturllib.robotparser
— Parser for robots.txthttp
— HTTP moduleshttp.client
— HTTP protocol clientftplib
— FTP protocol clientpoplib
— POP3 protocol clientimaplib
— IMAP4 protocol clientnntplib
— NNTP protocol clientsmtplib
— SMTP protocol clientsmtpd
— SMTP Servertelnetlib
— Telnet clientuuid
— UUID objects according to RFC 4122socketserver
— A framework for network servershttp.server
— HTTP servershttp.cookies
— HTTP state managementhttp.cookiejar
— Cookie handling for HTTP clientsxmlrpc
— XMLRPC server and client modulesxmlrpc.client
— XML-RPC client accessxmlrpc.server
— Basic XML-RPC serversipaddress
— IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
- Multimedia Services
audioop
— Manipulate raw audio dataaifc
— Read and write AIFF and AIFC filessunau
— Read and write Sun AU fileswave
— Read and write WAV fileschunk
— Read IFF chunked datacolorsys
— Conversions between color systemsimghdr
— Determine the type of an imagesndhdr
— Determine type of sound fileossaudiodev
— Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
- Internationalization
- Program Frameworks
turtle
— Turtle graphicscmd
— Support for line-oriented command interpretersshlex
— Simple lexical analysis
- Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
tkinter
— Python interface to Tcl/Tktkinter.ttk
— Tk themed widgetstkinter.tix
— Extension widgets for Tktkinter.scrolledtext
— Scrolled Text Widget- IDLE
- Other Graphical User Interface Packages
- Development Tools
typing
— Support for type hintspydoc
— Documentation generator and online help systemdoctest
— Test interactive Python examplesunittest
— Unit testing frameworkunittest.mock
— mock object libraryunittest.mock
— getting started- Using Mock
- Patch Decorators
- Further Examples
- Mocking chained calls
- Partial mocking
- Mocking a Generator Method
- Applying the same patch to every test method
- Mocking Unbound Methods
- Checking multiple calls with mock
- Coping with mutable arguments
- Nesting Patches
- Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock
- Mock subclasses and their attributes
- Mocking imports with patch.dict
- Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions
- More complex argument matching
- 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
test
— Regression tests package for Pythontest.support
— Utilities for the Python test suite
- Debugging and Profiling
- Software Packaging and Distribution
- Python Runtime Services
sys
— System-specific parameters and functionssysconfig
— Provide access to Python’s configuration informationbuiltins
— Built-in objects__main__
— Top-level script environmentwarnings
— Warning controlcontextlib
— Utilities forwith
-statement contextsabc
— Abstract Base Classesatexit
— Exit handlerstraceback
— Print or retrieve a stack traceback__future__
— Future statement definitionsgc
— Garbage Collector interfaceinspect
— Inspect live objectssite
— Site-specific configuration hookfpectl
— Floating point exception control
- Custom Python Interpreters
- Importing Modules
- Python Language Services
parser
— Access Python parse treesast
— Abstract Syntax Treessymtable
— Access to the compiler’s symbol tablessymbol
— Constants used with Python parse treestoken
— Constants used with Python parse treeskeyword
— Testing for Python keywordstokenize
— Tokenizer for Python sourcetabnanny
— Detection of ambiguous indentationpyclbr
— Python class browser supportpy_compile
— Compile Python source filescompileall
— Byte-compile Python librariesdis
— Disassembler for Python bytecodepickletools
— Tools for pickle developers
- Miscellaneous Services
- MS Windows Specific Services
- Unix Specific Services
posix
— The most common POSIX system callspwd
— The password databasespwd
— The shadow password databasegrp
— The group databasecrypt
— Function to check Unix passwordstermios
— POSIX style tty controltty
— Terminal control functionspty
— Pseudo-terminal utilitiesfcntl
— Thefcntl
andioctl
system callspipes
— Interface to shell pipelinesresource
— Resource usage informationnis
— Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)syslog
— Unix syslog library routines
- Superseded Modules
optparse
— Parser for command line options- Background
- Tutorial
- Reference Guide
- Option Callbacks
- Defining a callback option
- How callbacks are called
- Raising errors in a callback
- Callback example 1: trivial callback
- Callback example 2: check option order
- Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
- Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
- Callback example 5: fixed arguments
- Callback example 6: variable arguments
- Extending
optparse
imp
— Access theimport
internals
- Undocumented Modules
- Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
- Recommended third party tools
- Creating extensions without third party tools
- Extending Python with C or C++
- A Simple Example
- Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
- Back to the Example
- The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
- Compilation and Linkage
- Calling Python Functions from C
- Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
- Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
- Building Arbitrary Values
- Reference Counts
- Writing Extensions in C++
- Providing a C API for an Extension Module
- Defining New Types
- Building C and C++ Extensions
- Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
- Extending Python with C or C++
- Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application
- Python/C API Reference Manual
- Introduction
- Stable Application Binary Interface
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- Exception Handling
- Utilities
- Abstract Objects Layer
- Concrete Objects Layer
- Fundamental Objects
- Numeric Objects
- Sequence Objects
- Container Objects
- Function Objects
- Other Objects
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- Memory Management
- Object Implementation Support
- API and ABI Versioning
- Distributing Python Modules
- Installing Python Modules
- Python HOWTOs
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- The Short Explanation
- Details
- Drop support for Python 2.6 and older
- Make sure you specify the proper version support in your
setup.py
file - Have good test coverage
- Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
- Update your code
- Prevent compatibility regressions
- Check which dependencies block your transition
- Update your
setup.py
file to denote Python 3 compatibility - Use continuous integration to stay compatible
- Dropping Python 2 support completely
- Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
- Curses Programming with Python
- Descriptor HowTo Guide
- Functional Programming HOWTO
- Logging HOWTO
- Logging Cookbook
- Using logging in multiple modules
- Logging from multiple threads
- Multiple handlers and formatters
- Logging to multiple destinations
- Configuration server example
- Dealing with handlers that block
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- Use of alternative formatting styles
- Customizing
LogRecord
- Subclassing QueueHandler - a ZeroMQ example
- Subclassing QueueListener - a ZeroMQ example
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
- A more elaborate multiprocessing example
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with
dictConfig()
- Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
- Configuring filters with
dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
- Regular Expression HOWTO
- Socket Programming HOWTO
- Sorting HOW TO
- Unicode HOWTO
- HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package
- Argparse Tutorial
- An introduction to the ipaddress module
- Argument Clinic How-To
- The Goals Of Argument Clinic
- Basic Concepts And Usage
- Converting Your First Function
- Advanced Topics
- Symbolic default values
- Renaming the C functions and variables generated by Argument Clinic
- Converting functions using PyArg_UnpackTuple
- Optional Groups
- Using real Argument Clinic converters, instead of “legacy converters”
- Py_buffer
- Advanced converters
- Parameter default values
- The
NULL
default value - Expressions specified as default values
- Using a return converter
- Cloning existing functions
- Calling Python code
- Using a “self converter”
- Writing a custom converter
- Writing a custom return converter
- METH_O and METH_NOARGS
- tp_new and tp_init functions
- Changing and redirecting Clinic’s output
- The #ifdef trick
- Using Argument Clinic in Python files
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- Python Frequently Asked Questions
- General Python FAQ
- Programming FAQ
- Design and History FAQ
- Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
- Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
- Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?
- Why are Python strings immutable?
- Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
- Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?
- Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
- Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
- How fast are exceptions?
- Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?
- Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
- Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?
- Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
- How does Python manage memory?
- Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?
- Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?
- Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
- How are lists implemented?
- How are dictionaries implemented?
- Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
- Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?
- How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
- Why is there no goto?
- Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
- Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?
- Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
- Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
- Library and Extension FAQ
- Extending/Embedding FAQ
- Can I create my own functions in C?
- Can I create my own functions in C++?
- Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
- How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
- How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
- How do I extract C values from a Python object?
- How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?
- How do I call an object’s method from C?
- How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?
- How do I access a module written in Python from C?
- How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
- I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?
- How do I debug an extension?
- I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
- How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?
- How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?
- Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
- Python on Windows FAQ
- How do I run a Python program under Windows?
- How do I make Python scripts executable?
- Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
- How do I make an executable from a Python script?
- Is a
*.pyd
file the same as a DLL? - How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
- How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
- How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
- How do I emulate os.kill() in Windows?
- How do I extract the downloaded documentation on Windows?
- Graphic User Interface FAQ
- “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ
- Glossary
- About these documents
- Dealing with Bugs
- Copyright
- History and License